Green Vehicles have Dirt on them?

Mining Key Ingredients of EV Power packs is Costly

Anshi Beohar*

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) offer a blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all1 . They address challenges such as poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace and justice at a global level. Of these SDGs, Goal 7 talks about ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.

Therefore, global efforts are needed to discontinue fossil fuels as the major energy source to achieve this goal.

Achieving global climate goals also follows a clear plan of action. The world must decarbonise to that end. Adoption of electric vehicles is one of the easiest routes to reach this green destination. What underpins the electric vehicle ecosystem? Improved air quality, reduced greenhouse gas emissions and a better planet to live in.

But setting your sights on a fossil-fuel free future is one thing. Holding the hands of communities through a just energy transition is another. Putting an end to the fossil fuel economy and looking ahead to a decarbonised future may be noble goals but that path is often littered with deep human exploitation, including deplorable child labour practices, as well as horrific environmental risks.

Green Vehicles and their Emissions

It’s true that one cannot exist in the present world and deny that it is paralysed by a climate crisis. Automobiles with internal combustion engines (ICE) produce direct emissions through the tailpipe, as well as through evaporation from the vehicle’s fuel system. All of it contributes to air toxicity that is choking the planet. Equally hazardous is the extraction of fossil fuel.

On the other hand, electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) produce lower tailpipe emissions while battery electric vehicles (BEVs), running only on electricity, have zero tailpipe emissions and are generally more efficient.

Therefore, it is in everyone’s interest to spur the growth of an electric fleet, slated to become more green as time passes. In fact, India’s first draft of the Battery Swapping Policy 2022, released by Niti Aayog,2 creates a framework for greater interoperability while safeguarding the innovation potential for and efficiency of the EV battery ecosystem. This is a substantial push for faster EV adoption. A sharp increase in the sale of electric vehicles has also been observed this year.3

Hunger for Battery Raw Materials

However, large-scale adoption of EVs, despite its undeniable role in climate change mitigation, will also mean something else. It will entail a meteoric rise in investments to secure key minerals essential to clean energy technologies, such as batteries. Cobalt, lithium, nickel and ‘rare earth elements’ are the most commonly considered transition minerals.

Make no mistake. Historically, mining of key components to build the powerful pillars of modern civilisation has neither been just, nor fair. Already, mining of metal and minerals like nickel, cobalt, lithium, manganese, aluminium, etc. is on the rise with soaring demand. As expected, the extraction activities of precious minerals powering electric batteries have also been accompanied with news reports of human rights abuses, environmental harms and widespread corruption.

As the global appetite for transition minerals grow ravenous, the scenario gets bleaker for most members of communities sitting on the natural deposits. The scale of demand, as well as human misery is unimaginable, as policymakers fear missing the deadline to decarbonise transit. Global lithium demand could increase by 40 times by 2040, and demand for other battery metals like cobalt, nickel, manganese and rare earth elements (REE) is also set to exponentially rise.4 Simultaneously, several investigations into the living and working conditions of miners in these regions paint a dystopian picture. Miners have lamented: “The salary is very, very small. … The mine makes so much and we make so little.”5 Accounts have surfaced about abysmal labour practices: If miners take a day off, they claim that money is deducted from their wages. If they are sick and miss more than two days in a month, more money is cut.6

Miseries such as these are inflicted regularly upon some of the poorest people in the world. The UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) noted that mining for battery ingredients is often done in developing countries (report link provided in the previous article). Over 60% of cobalt is mined in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the nation rife with human rights abuses, chief among them being child labour in mines and public health concerns. Over 50% of the global lithium resources are at the lithium triangle, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina, where indigenous communities are facing challenges to their life, livelihood and livestock due to contamination of surface water, groundwater depletion, soil contamination and overall environmental degradation caused by lithium mining.

While we dream of a carbon-neutral future, clean air and pollution-free roads, the costs continue to be borne by the have-nots historically. Impoverished populations of resource-rich regions continue to face gross human-rights violations, ruinous poverty and health hazards. Miners regularly inhale toxic dust and experience terrible health outcomes owing to long exposure to pollution from both mining and smelting operations. For instance, the extraction of nickel, predominately mined in Australia, Canada, Indonesia, Russia and the Philippines have had negative impacts on surrounding populations. Both sulphide and laterite nickel mining are associated with pollution and human rights abuses, especially for indigenous peoples, from Russia to New Caledonia.7 High doses of another element, cobalt, produced in countries like Congo, Zambia and Cuba, have been associated with lung disease and heart failure.

There are already investigations on cobalt’s possible link to cancer. 8

It is the same story that gets repeated often, and frequently in cycles. Wealthier parts of the world are in pole positions to participate in


economies powered by new technologies (a green one this time), while poorer people continue to turn the wheels of change, while being rewarded with destroyed landscapes, contaminated water and disease burden. As the electric vehicle juggernaut rolls on, so do destruction of natural resources, livelihoods and communities. Lithium mining in Chile’s Salar de Atacama is said to have consumed 65% of the region’s water.

In Argentina 33 indigenous communities have resisted the advance of lithium mining with disputes over their consent and decreased water for humans, livestock and crop irrigation. In Chile there were protests and court cases by the indigenous peoples of the Atacama Salt Flats over access to water and a lack of consent.9

from fossil fuel to renewable-energy propelled sustainable transportation is the need of the hour. But we will miss the whole point if the transition isn’t just or safe. The report ‘A Material Transition’ goes on to say: “Any transition that focuses only on switching fossil fuels with renewable energies, without addressing the undemocratic and unequal ways energy is produced and accessed, will do little to address the structural issues at the heart of the climate crisis.”10

Is all Electric Power Clean?

As long as fossil-fuel continues to generate electricity, thinking of EVs being powered completely by clean fuel wouldn’t be correct. We cannot disregard that electric power plants also produce emissions. A significant percentage of electricity generated still comes from burning fossil fuels. Right now, only 36% of global electricity generation is reliant on renewable and nuclear sources of energy. And if we look at the overall energy consumption patterns, which includes transport and heating, renewable and nuclear sources of energy contribute less than 16%11

So, the large chunk of coal generated power in the present scenario contributes to pollution in a big way. About 50% of the Indian power plants do not meet the 100% fly ash utilisation target even two decades after MoEF&CC regulations12. Among the states with large coal-based power capacity, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Odisha have a huge backlog, and the improper disposal significantly contributes to air pollution.

In addition, studies suggest that in regions that depend heavily on fossil fuels like coal for electricity generation, EVs may not demonstrate a strong well-to-wheel emissions benefit. Well-to-wheel emissions include all emissions related to fuel production, processing, distribution, and use of the vehicle. The actual emissionreduction benefits associated with plug-in electric vehicles are also dependent on multiple other factors, such as the electricity generation fuel mix, the time of day (charging), the vehicle type, etc.13

Green Mobility: Hazards and Challenges

The EV ecosystem brings hope as humanity stands precariously balanced against a climate disaster. However, its inherent limitations and perils also need to be under intense scrutiny. It is the only way experts can access clear metrics, data and insights to guide their redressal action. For instance, lithiumion batteries have structural vulnerabilities. They are very sensitive to extreme temperatures and must not be overcharged or over-discharged14. Also, these batteries must never be exposed to water as lithium is extremely reactive with water.

Recently, India saw several instances of EVs going up in flames. The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways tasked DRDO’s (Defence Research Development Organisation) lab CFEES (Centre for Fire, Explosive and Environment Safety) to investigate the issue. Additionally, the transport minister has assured strict action against negligent parties, including imposition of penalty and recall of the defective vehicles.15 The preliminary findings have identified issues with batteries and the use of low-grade parts/products in nearly all of the automobiles involved in the incidents.

The battery woes do not end here. Batteries, near the end of their life, also become hazardous.16 They need to be disposed of and recycled carefully. Defunct batteries may contain cobalt, lithium, manganese oxide, nickel, electrolytes, etc. Metals like lithium spontaneously react with moisture and can cause explosions.

Deep Sea Mining: An Ocean of Trouble?

We have already discussed the threats of land-based mining. But new and uncharted areas are also on the radar of mining companies, as the cause of clean energy batteries is furthered. The deep ocean floor is carpeted with rocks that contain green technology minerals such as copper, nickel, manganese and cobalt. To harvest these key components from the rocks or polymetallic nodules, a deep-sea mining industry is already in the works. There are reports of some countries and companies hoping to commence mining in international waters as soon as 2023. This may have far-reaching consequences, fear critics and conservationist groups.

Already coordinates of the green transition metals of the ocean are available. In the Clarion-Clipperton Zone of the Pacific Ocean, large deposits of polymetallic nodules were found that cover vast areas of the seafloor.17 These orbs contain high manganese and iron hydroxides along with nickel, copper and cobalt as well as magnesium, silica, etc.18 The system used for collection of these metals and minerals is operated remotely and the greater depth in seabed poses higher challenges. The nodules are harvested from the ocean floor and the collected material is pumped to a surface vessel.19 Once this material reaches the ship, it undergoes processing and the waste content is then discharged near the seafloor.

This process emits light, sound and disturbs the sub-sea life, including any marine life in the area. Additionally, the machinery used in the process will emit pollutants in the water as well as in the air. These activities would not only affect marine life and seabed geomorphology but they will also contribute heavily to the anthropogenic disasters in the oceans20.

However, policymakers are keen on meeting their ambitious green targets and may be foreseeing a transition mineral shortage. Last July, India’s Ministry of Earth Sciences received an approval for the “Deep Ocean Mission”, with a view to explore the deep ocean for resources and develop deep sea technologies for sustainable use of ocean resources.21

Despite trying to survive in a burning planet everyone needs to keep in mind that oceans are the last frontier against exploitation of natural resources. Whatever industry proponents may say about the safety

and lower carbon footprint of deep sea mining, the uncertainties around biodiversity loss and other dangers accelerated by such processes cannot be ignored. These activities have to be strictly regulated and at best, avoided. The United Nations has proclaimed 2021-2030, a Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development to support efforts to reverse the cycle of decline in ocean health and create a framework to improve the conditions for sustainable development of the ocean22. Even global auto and tech giants are taking a step back. Companies like Google, BMW, Volvo, Samsung SDI, etc. have taken a strong stand against the use of minerals sourced from the ocean and have encouraged a moratorium on deep-sea mining.23

Recycle: Coming Full Circle

Environmentalists have been searching high and low for an answer to combat the shortage of critical minerals, without causing large-scale ecosystem devastation. The solution to address both the giant piles of battery wastage and the challenges of new extraction seems to lie in recycling.

Due to Indian policies supporting EVs, the sales penetration is expected to increase to 30% for private cars, 70% for commercial cars, 40% for buses and 80% for two wheelers (2Ws) and three wheelers by 203024. EVs will hit the roads faster for other reasons too. Increased awareness about the environment and other market forces could make us have 1,45,000 tonnes of used EV batteries by 2030.25 The global lithiumion battery market size was valued at USD 41.97 billion in 202126 and the Indian lithium-ion battery market was valued at USD 1.66 billion in 2020 and is predicted to reach USD 4.85 billion by 202727.

The sweep and scale of this market can only be rationalised if governments and industry leaders give top billing to recycling. It may not address the stratospheric market demand singlehandedly at present, but can bring down the load of freshly-mined clean energy minerals. According to a report commissioned by Earthworks, assuming that 100% of dead EV batteries are collected for recycling and mineral recovery rates, especially for lithium, recycling itself could meet up to 25% of the EV industry’s lithium demand and 35% of its cobalt and nickel needs by 2040.28

The world is going through what can be called a ‘perfect storm.’ The third and final section of the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)’s Sixth Assessment Report, has sounded the red alert on climate action, saying that in 2010-2019, the average annual greenhouse gas (GHG) emission levels were the highest in human history. It prescribed the urgency of immediate and deep emissions reductions across all sectors to limit global warming to 1.5 degree Celsius above pre-industrial levels.29

In such a ‘do or perish’ situation, electric mobility needs to be sustainable at all costs. Fresh mining of transition materials, with serious ethical and ecological fears, fly in the face of a circular battery economy and hence, a regenerative planet. Perhaps, we will do well to follow the experts, who say that circularity “carries the solutions countries and businesses need to meet their climate goals, safeguard the Earth’s resources and protect all people. It’s time for a circular economy.”30

Image Courtesy: The image on page 25 has been taken from a document published by United Nation Confernce on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).

Commodities at a glance: Special issue on strategic battery raw materials UNCTAD. (2020). Available at: https://bit.ly/3xdKUww

The image on page 27 has been taken from a document published by International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), Gland Switzerland, in collaboration with Gallifrey Foundation.

Deep seabed mining: A rising environmental challenge. IUCN and Gallifrey Foundation. (2018). Available at: https://bit.ly/3NaPaCS

*Anshi Beohar is Legal Consultant (Research) at Common Cause

Endnotes

  1. Take Action for the Sustainable Development Goals. (2020, September 19). the United Nations. Retrieved May 23, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3zQSkbY
  2. Draft Battery Swapping Policy, 2022. Retrieved June 2, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3y1kKia
  3. Baruah, R. (2022, June 9). GST Council may bring rate on li-ion cells on par with EVs. Mint. Retrieved June 2, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3zLts5q
  4. Renewable energy at what cost?: A closer look at DRC’s nascent lithium sector. Global Witness (December 2021). Retrieved May 26, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3HGii3J
  5. Pattisson, P. (2021, November 8). ‘Like slave and master’: DRC miners toil for 30p an hour to fuel electric cars. The Guardian. Retrieved May 30, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3HFlWL6
  6. Pattisson, P. (2021, November 8). ‘Like slave and master’: DRC miners toil for 30p an hour to fuel electric cars. The Guardian. Retrieved May 30, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3HFlWL6
  7. A Material Transition: Exploring supply and demand solutions for renewable energy minerals. War on Want (March 2021). Retrieved June 1, 2022, from https://bit.ly/39AuA1d
  8. Watts, J. (2019, December 18). How the race for cobalt risks turning it from miracle metal to deadly chemical. The Guardian. Retrieved May 30, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3OjZQQQ
  9. A Material Transition: Exploring supply and demand solutions for renewable energy minerals. War on Want (March 2021). Retrieved June 1, 2022, from https://bit.ly/39AuA1d
  10. A Material Transition: Exploring supply and demand solutions for renewable energy minerals. War on Want (March 2021). Retrieved June 1, 2022, from https://bit.ly/39AuA1d
  11. Ritchie, H., Roser, M., & Rosado, P. (2020). Electricity Mix. Our World in Data. Retrieved June 9, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3zNy4b4
  12. An Ashen Legacy: India’s thermal power ash mismanagement. Centre for Science and Environment (2020). Retrieved June 2,2022, from https://bit.ly/3HAOzcx
  13. Kukreja, B (2018). Life Cycle Analysis of Electric Vehicles. Retrieved May 25, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3xxaug8
  14. Banerji, S. (2021, December 14). How to prevent electric vehicles from catching fire? India’s answer--Dial AIS 156. ETAuto.com. Retrieved May 27, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3zOYTvv
  15. ET Auto. (2022, April 21). EV fires: Gadkari calls for mandatory recalls, stringent penalty for errant companies. ETAuto.com. Retrieved May 27, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3xFBryf
  16. Gupta, S. (2021, January 18). Rare earth metals are used extensively in clean energy technologies. But how safe are they? DownToEarth. Retrieved June 1, 2022, from https://bit.ly/39zBa89
  17. Vanreusel, A., Hilario, A., Ribeiro, P. A., Menot, L., & Arbizu, P. M. (2016). Threatened by mining, polymetallic nodules are required to preserve abyssal epifauna. Scientific Reports, 6(1), 1-6. Retrieved June 1, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3b7oJk9
  18. AMC Consultants. (2021, March 17). Technical Report Summary: Initial Assessment of the NORI Property, Clarion-Clipperton Zone. Retrieved May 27, 2022, from https://bit.ly/39GjDLp
  19. Sardelis, S., Oester, S., & Liboiron, M. (2018, January 10). An Overview of Seabed Mining Including the Current State of Development, Environmental Impacts, and Knowledge Gaps. Frontiers. Retrieved June 4, 2022, from https://bit.ly/2o0FMZ7
  20. Deep seabed mining: A rising environmental challenge. IUCN and Gallifrey Foundation. (2018). Retrieved June 3, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3NaPaCS
  21. Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA). (2021, June 16). Cabinet approves Deep Ocean Mission. Press Information Bureau. Retrieved June 2, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3MZRyMM
  22. The Ocean Decade - The Science we need for the Ocean we want. Retrieved May 23, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3y7u9F6
  23. Meier, L. (2021, June 10). Instead of mining the deep sea let’s recycle our electronic waste. UN Today. Retrieved June 2, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3zOCIWp
  24. Shifting gears: the evolving electric vehicle landscape in India. KPMG Assurance and Consulting Services LLP. (2020, October). Retrieved May 26, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3bdaA4S
  25. Desai, P. (2022, March 29). Time ripe for EV battery recycling ecosystem. Deccan Herald. Retrieved June 2, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3y5Lga8
  26. Lithium-ion Battery Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report by Product (LCO, LFP, NCA, LMO, LTO, NMC), by Application (Consumer Electronics, Energy Storage Systems, Industrial), by Region, and Segment Forecasts, 2022-2030. Grand View Research. (2022). Retrieved May 24, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3n3ForG
  27. Lithium-ion Battery Market - Growth, Trends, COVID-19 Impact and Forecasts (2022-2027). Mordor Intelligence. (2022). Retrieved May 24, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3HBJ6SG
  28. Reducing new mining for electric vehicle battery metals: responsible sourcing through demand reduction strategies and recycling. Institute for Sustainable Futures. (2021). Retrieved May 24, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3xLIohs
  29. Ghosh, S. (2022, April 7). IPCC report shows a greater need for increased climate action. Mongabay-India. Retrieved May 23, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3OnPdNj
  30. Circularity Gap Report. Circle Economy. (2022). Retrieved May 23, 2022, from https://bit.ly/3N5EJ3x

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